Printing the Future of Modular Construction
How 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) Is Reshaping Industrialized Construction and Building the Workforce Behind It
Vida Babajaniniashirvani is a PhD Candidate at Myers-Lawson school of construction at Virginia Tech.
Picture a near-future construction site where a single crew manages two types of printed concrete simultaneously, one team in a warehouse outside the city, running a 3D printer that prints wall panels to be shipped and assembled on site, another on the foundation itself, printing custom geometries that no factory module could replicate. Neither approach exists in isolation. They are two expressions of the same idea: that concrete construction, one of the industry's most labor-intensive and waste-generating processes, can be automated, digitized, and made radically more efficient. That idea is 3D concrete printing (3DCP): a computer-controlled additive manufacturing process that extrudes concrete layer by layer, eliminating formwork, reducing labor dependency, and enabling levels of design flexibility that conventional methods cannot match, and for the modular and offsite construction community, it represents not a competing technology but the next chapter in the industrialization of how we build.
For the modular and offsite construction industry, 3D concrete printing should not be viewed as a competing construction method. It should be understood as a potential expansion of the industrialized construction toolkit. This connection matters because many of the challenges facing 3DCP are familiar to modular builders: how to standardize production without eliminating design flexibility, how to coordinate digital models with physical assembly, how to control quality across repeatable units, how to train a workforce for manufacturing-based construction, and how to integrate new components into existing building systems. In this sense, 3DCP is not separate from modular construction; it is one possible next layer of offsite production.
This research, has focused on a question that sits at the intersection of technology and people: what does the AEC workforce actually need to know to make 3DCP work, and what does the industry currently understand about that gap? Through a combination of literature review, 3DCP expert focus groups, and a national survey of U.S. construction professionals, the answers are both encouraging and sobering.
Figure 1. Two 3DCP delivery models; onsite and offsite
Understanding the Workforce Challenge
Both delivery models share one fundamental requirement: people who know what they are doing. Whether 3D concrete printing takes place directly on the jobsite or in a controlled offsite manufacturing environment, successful implementation depends on a workforce capable of operating the equipment, managing digital workflows, and integrating the technology into construction practice. Yet many discussions surrounding 3D concrete printing focus primarily on the technology itself, with less attention given to a critical question: who will operate these systems, manage these workflows, and implement these technologies at scale?
This is also a familiar issue for modular construction. Offsite construction is not simply traditional construction moved indoors; it requires a different workforce logic built around production planning, digital coordination, tolerance management, quality control, sequencing, logistics, and cross-trade integration. 3DCP raises a similar workforce challenge. The technology may be automated, but its success depends on people who understand how material behavior, machine operation, digital modeling, inspection, and assembly decisions interact.
A review of the current training landscape reveals a troubling fragmentation. There is no standardized curriculum, no unified competency framework, and no formal pathway for construction professionals to certify their readiness to work with this emerging technology (Afsari et al., 2024). To better understand the competencies required for effective adoption of 3D concrete printing, this research employed a mixed-methods approach consisting of an extensive review of the existing 3DCP literature, a focus group of 3DCP industry experts, and a national survey of U.S. AEC professionals representing 16 states. The objective was to identify and evaluate the relative importance of the competencies required for successful implementation of 3D concrete printing technology. As shown in Figure 2, the findings resulted in the identification of 16 essential competencies through the focus group process and captured industry professionals' perceptions of the importance of each competency though the survey (Babajaniniashirvani et al., 2025).
Figure 2. Perceived importance of key 3DCP competencies among AEC professionals
The results revealed several important insights. Knowledge of concrete mix and the 3DCP process emerged as the highest-ranked competencies, followed by printer operations and specifications, printer safety, and printer technology/software. While 3DCP is often associated with robotics and automation, the high ranking of concrete materials knowledge shows that successful implementation begins with understanding material behavior, printability, and process control. This finding has a clear parallel with modular construction: both depend on predictable inputs, repeatable production, safety, quality control, and coordination between design information and physical assembly. Competencies such as construction management, codes and standards, and structural modeling also received strong ratings, suggesting that the future 3DCP workforce will need more than technical machine skills. It will need the same kind of integrated thinking already required in modular and offsite construction: connecting materials, digital workflows, production sequencing, inspection, and final assembly into one coordinated delivery process.
From Key Competencies to Curriculum
Knowing what the workforce needs is only half the challenge. The next step is turning those critical competencies into a structured training program that can prepare the next generation of construction professionals.
The next step in our research was to developing a 10-module 3DCP curriculum in two tracks: Module A covers fundamentals (digital fabrication context, 3D modeling and toolpath simulation in Rhinoceros and Grasshopper, concrete mix design, codes and safety), while Module B addresses advanced application in affordable housing (case study of a real printed Virginia home, building systems, structural design and reinforcement, architectural detailing, hands-on printer operations, and concrete extrusion and testing)(Afsari et al., 2025). The curriculum translates research findings into practical workforce development, providing learners with the knowledge and skills needed to move from understanding the technology to successfully implementing it in practice.
This type of curriculum could also be paired with modular workforce education. The early modules on digital fabrication, modeling, concrete mix, codes, and safety could support broad awareness across offsite construction teams, while advanced modules on building systems, structural design, printer operations, and concrete extrusion could support specialized roles inside a modular or prefabrication facility. Rather than training a separate “3DCP workforce,” the more scalable approach may be to upskill the existing modular workforce so that printed concrete becomes one more coordinated production process within industrialized construction.
Looking Ahead
The future of construction will not be defined by a single innovation. Instead, it will be shaped by how effectively the industry combines manufacturing, automation, digital technologies, advanced materials, and workforce development into integrated delivery systems.
Industrialized construction has already transformed where buildings are manufactured. 3D concrete printing may help transform how they are manufactured. The most important question is not whether 3D concrete printing will replace modular construction, but how the industry can leverage the strengths of both approaches to deliver a more productive, affordable, and scalable built environment.
Getting there requires deliberate investment in the competencies that connect 3DCP to industrialized construction: concrete materials expertise, digital modeling and toolpath skills, production planning, equipment safety, quality control, building-system integration, and training infrastructure. These are not isolated 3DCP issues. They are the same types of workforce and process challenges that modular construction has been addressing for years as it moves building production into more controlled and repeatable environments.
For modular builders, educators, manufacturers, and policymakers, the opportunity is clear. 3DCP does not need to replace modular construction to be valuable. Its near-term value may be as a complementary production method that expands what offsite factories can make, supports hybrid building systems, and creates new pathways for workforce development. The technologies are advancing rapidly. The next challenge is preparing the modular and offsite workforce capable of turning that potential into scalable practice.
Bibliography
- Education in the Construction Industry. In T. Leathem, W. Collins, & A. Perrenoud (Eds.), Proceedings of 60th Annual Associated Schools of Construction International Conference (Vol. 5, pp. 39–47). EasyChair. https://doi.org/10.29007/dgwz
- Afsari, K., McCoy, A., Agee, P., Brand, A., King, N., Pond, N., & Babajaniniashirvani, V. (2025). 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) Curriculum: Training for Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) Professionals | HUD USER. HUD. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/publications/3D-Concrete-Printing-3DCP-Curriculum.html
- Babajaniniashirvani, V., Afsari, K., & McCoy, A. (2025). Investigating Key Competencies for 3D Concrete Printing in Affordable Housing. 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784486139.003
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